How significant a problem is youth offending Essay

How huge an issue is youth affronting - Essay Example Their stay in the jail must be used to adjust their character, so that upon discharge, they would think that its simple to absorb into the standard of society. The careless society and grown-ups are answerable for larger part of the criminal offenses by youngsters. Early educational encounters have a lot to do with the criminal leanings of the youths. Low accomplishment in school, family ancestry of issue conduct, and absence of social responsibility could be a portion of the explanations behind the adolescent to get into violations. Youth wrongdoers ought not be treated as the ordinary lawbreakers. Leniently, there is a different youth equity framework to take care of this viewpoint, through the intercession of Youth Courts. In his book named â€Å"Criminology† Tim Newburn, bargains widely regarding this matter in part â€Å"Youth Crime and Youth Justice (p714-741). He features the job of the organization, the working of the penitentiaries, police and estimation of youth culpable and attempts to offer proper arrangements. No two youthful guilty parties are similar and they require shifted kinds of advising based on their backgrounder data, with respect to what drove them to the way of wrongdoing. Society and organization have bunches of obligation in rewarding and caring for the first run through wrongdoers. Youth, other than being burnable, have receptive personalities. Each guilty party is definitely not a lawbreaker, yet has the possibility to get one, if not guided well in time. What is significant is to build up a comprehension of the reasons for wrongdoing. What is the conceivable arrangement? Newburn composes, â€Å"†¦imposition of an overextending focus on youth equity, the formation of the Youth Justice Board to supervise practice, and the foundation of multi-organization Youth Offending Teams to convey justice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (p.549) are significant. A definitive point of the changing offices is to focus on the culpable conduct and to address the particular variables connected with offender’s

Buckle up Essay Example for Free

Lock in Essay Still oblivious, wreathed in wraps, pale and out in my own property, I was unable to even scarcely envision the agony that overwhelmed my friends and family as they by lay vigil every night, thinking about my sorry picture with just breathing cylinders to cling to. On the subsequent day, I recaptured awareness and started a murky memory of what occurred. The progressive knocks and crash. I could review seeing the driver slam straight into the vehicle in front, after a second I was flung directly into the driving seat nearly unsitting the driver who unemotionally pushed my head aside. The main other memory is seeing blazes and being choked by vapor of consuming petroleum. The mishap left me with grisly facial cuts, an upper broken jaw with six teeth less. In cutting edge United Arab Emirates, the causes such mishaps are as fluctuated as the quantity of mishaps. There are times when you cant truly accuse anyone. No one anticipates an unexpected thick haze during the heavy traffic, it was a significant grievous situation yet you dare not growl in the roadway since you could be the reason for another mishap. The mix of crazy pompous drivers with such climate conditions just spells fate to the cautious drivers who will back off and guarantee that there is adequate space between his vehicle and the following however there is no realizing who may slam into your back. It is in this way an unwritten guideline that one straightforward error like easing back down even in zebra intersections may bring about auto collision. Notwithstanding all these unwritten standards, you can't doubtlessly circumvent being marked an extremely numbskull on the off chance that you drive at 120km/h in a senseless thick haze. It is consistently the primary vehicle in the accident that causes the mishap, regardless of whether he was driving past the police legitimate remittance, a duplicate of the many paper on the driving wheel or espresso then again, the requirements to such auto collisions are seen each day on our roadways. It gets much additionally nerve racking when individuals drive while noting calls or when rich spoilt children zoom at risky speeds in fresh out of the box new SUVs. I was dispatched from the emergency clinic following three serious long stretches of clinical consideration. By gradually recalling the past, attempting to move what may have caused the mishap and what may have, doing whatever it takes not to discover a reason why as a traveler I had significantly more genuine wounds than the driver who just got away with minor wounds the solution to my dumb wounds hits me hard, Buckle up! : That was the contrast between the driver and me. Its significantly all the more harming that I needed to learn difficult way. The safety belt use is the guardian angel on the off chance that you are to be engaged with such mishaps. These are an a lot of street losses that emerge because of our refusal to lock in. By and by the crusade â€Å"Your wellbeing is in utilizing seat strap is helping individuals comprehend the significance of locking in. Also, as we talk now substantial fines are being exacted on those caught for not putting on their seat straps. This has come simply after the acknowledgment that auto collisions cause a bigger number of passings than murder and is just second to death brought about via cardiovascular illnesses. The experience of mishaps is frightening, the endurance chance is in ensured, and as an ever increasing number of insane person drivers are discharged onto our streets, the main friend in need is the safety belt. I have never been reminded to lock in from that point onward, my scars are too immense to be in any way disregarded. Locking in has become a natural inclination to me. References New Initiative in IAHVs Road Peace Campaign: Buckle up Dubai www. dubaishopping celebration. com/news/IAHV11-09. htm Buckle up Drive Controls Violations of Seat Belt Rule. 2007http:www. uaeinteract. com/docs.

Chai Teas a Low-Key Gut-Health Hero - and Thats Just One of Its Many Health Benefits

Chai Tea’s a Low-Key Gut-Health Hero - and That’s Just One of Its Many Health Benefits Chai is a beverage colored in history as rich as its taste. It’s very name means “tea” in Hindi, and it is a word many nations worldwide use for tea.But chai is not tea in the truest sense of the world, it is more of a collection of spices mixed together and put into a type of drink very much like the tea we are familiar with.Chai has become so widespread that there are a plethora of recipes for preparing it, varying from continent to continent, even from family to family.The most common way of making it is putting spices into black tea â€" cinnamon, cloves, black peppercorn, cardamom, even ginger.Brew this mixture in milk, taste it, and you’ll see just why chai is so popular a beverage.But what really matters for this text is: does chai have any beneficial effects on our health? It very much does.As tasty as it is, chai is also just as healthy. Let’s see just how chai works to make us strong and healthy!CHAI TEA: THE ORIGINS OF A BEVERAGEThere is an ancient legend of the o rigins of chai.According to the story, long ago, a rich and famous king grew ill, so he summoned all the most renowned sages of his land (today’s India), and asked to concoct a brew with healing properties, so he could be healed.The sages gathered and found the solution in the ancient healing tradition of Ayurveda.Ayurveda works by utilizing various types of spices in the process of healing.Ginger and black pepper, allegedly, improve digestion because of their heat.Cinnamon was used to fixing respiratory issues. Cardamom was used to improve one’s mood, and cloves had the role of painkillers.By combining these spices together, they created chai.Interestingly enough, there weren’t any actual tea leaves in the original mixture.That came a lot later in its history. Even milk and sugar are a fairly recent addition.All this came to be in the 1800s, during the period of the British rule in India.In that period, the British discovered and cultivated a strain of Camellia sinensis, call ed Camellia sinensis assamica.This tea plant was just what the British needed, since their passion for good, strong tea, served with a bit of milk and sugar, of course, was already very well known. WHAT IS CHAI TEA MADE OF? There are many different ways of making chai, and because of so many variations, the definitive recipe for making chai does not exist.However, there are four basic components presents in basically every variant of chai, and we shall discuss all four of them.1.  Spices The word for spices used in brewing chai is masala, and their exact mixture differs from region to region. Those most available throughout India we’ve already mentioned: cardamom, black peppercorns, cinnamon, and cloves are widely used even today.Later on, there came new additions to this formula when vanilla, nutmeg, fennel and star anise were introduced, and they are still in use.As chai grew in popularity and the number of fans grew, new spices entered the mixture.Bay leaf, saffron, cacao, and allspice became a popular novelty, alongside with coriander and cumin, further increasing the number of potential spice mixtures.2.  Sweeteners When it comes to sweeteners, the most typically used sweeteners used for brewing chai are sugar (both brown and white sugar) and honey.However, other sweeteners are gradually introduced as well.Coconut, demerara, and turbinado are also widely used, while in some parts of India people use jaggery, which is, essentially, unrefined cane sugar.3.  Milk In India, the way chai is typically brewed is by using buffalo milk.When it comes to Western variations, cow milk is much more accessible, so this type of milk is in greater use.There are some alternatives to cow milk: coconut milk, soy milk, rice milk, even almond milk are excellent options, while worldwide, even goat and yak milk are used for making chai.Since recipes differ so much, the milk is used differently as well.According to some recipes, milk is used to dilute the chai previously cooked in water, in order to mellow the taste a bit.Other recipes suggest using either pure milk or a mixture of milk and water to brew this beverage.4.  Tea And finally, we get to actual tea leaves. When it comes to the sorts of tea used in chai making are two types of black tea native to India: the Assam and the Darjeeling.However, you can use more or less any type of tea as a base for chai.Green teas, yerba mate, both are perfectly suitable for chai, or you can simply disregard tea leaves and make chai without them.CHAI TEA AND OUR HEALTHAs we have already mentioned, chai is originally created for healing purposes.But does it actually have any healing properties?It most certainly does.Despite the fact that some aspects of traditional healing practices are all but effective, the mixtures used for brewing chai can be of great help when it comes to health.1.  Heart Rate Improvement Earlier in the text, we’ve mentioned how cinnamon has quite a positive effect, for it lowers and stabilize s blood pressure.There are even documented cases showing that show the drop of the LDL type of cholesterol, triglycerides, and the common cholesterol by nearly 30%!The studies used much higher doses than those found in chai, but the effects are obvious nonetheless.It must be noted, however, that cinnamon is not the only ingredient of chai connected to heart rate improvement.Another important factor regarding heart rate is the black tea leaves themselves.Black tea is noted to have very positive effects on cholesterol reduction and bringing your heartbeat to healthy and acceptable levels.The majority of researches show that, if a person drinks four cups of black tea per day (or more), after a period of time the reduction of blood pressure levels becomes evident.Three or more cups per day reduce the risk of potential heart issues by up to 11%.As good as all this sound, these data do not absolutely confirm the magnitude of chai tea’s effects.These results are more than promising, but for them to be confirmed beyond doubt, we need research on more direct effect chai tea has on the overall health of our heart.2.  Reduction of Blood Sugar Levels When it comes to regulating the levels of sugar in your blood, chai tea proves its usefulness even in this case.This is because of the fact that it often has cinnamon and ginger within its mixture, and these spices are considered to be very effective when it comes to blood sugar control.Cinnamon, for instance, can reportedly reduce insulin resistance buy up to 30%!If you’re having issues with blood sugar, this will be of great help to you.Lowering the insulin resistance enables it to be more effective when it comes to distributing sugar out of your bloodstream and straight into your cells, which can be of great help with regulating your blood sugar levels.Some recent studies seem to confirm this.People suffering from type 2 diabetes were given daily doses of ginger powder (2g per dose).When it was over, the data gathered showed that the patients’ level of blood sugar was actually lowered by 12%.If you decide to try and use chai tea in order to reduce your blood sugar levels, you need to know that the amount of cinnamon and ginger usually found within an average cup of chai tea is too small to have any notable effect.For this reason, it would be smart for you to make chai on your own instead of buying it, so you can add as much cinnamon and ginger as you need.Another good reason why brewing your own customized chai tea is the fact that chai tea available at various teahouses and cafés are often made with a lot of various sweeteners put into the mixture.This much sweetness negates all beneficial effects of the chai, so that’s why should avoid sweeteners altogether.3.  Improvement of Digestion and Dealing with Nausea Aside from it being useful in controlling blood sugar levels, ginger can also be used to counter nausea as well. This comes handy, especially in the pregnancy period.According to seve ral studies, it takes only 1-1.5g of ginger per day to significantly reduce all the effects of nausea, just the amount you can find within the average cup of chai tea.Cinnamon comes to fore here as well, but aside ginger and cinnamon, cardamom and cloves can be used for this purpose as well.Cardamom and cloves possess some very effective anti-bacterial properties and are a great way of combating and reducing the intensity of the detrimental effects caused by bacterial infection.Yet another chai tea ingredient, black pepper, has also proved its use in a similar way.Certain researches have shown that black pepper possesses not only anti-bacterial properties, but it also able to increase the number of enzymes our body needs in order for us to successfully digest our food.Increased number of digestive enzymes leads to a much more effective digestive system, and that is always a plus.There is, however, a caveat to it. The studies mentioned were conducted on animals, and the amount of bla ck pepper used was 3-5 times higher than the amount an average human is able to consume.Thus, the data we mentioned cannot be considered conclusive, so new, more precise research is needed.4.  Help with Weight Loss and Weight Regulation Chai tea can be a great way for you to lose and control your weight.We have already mentioned that, in order to prepare a proper cup of chai tea, we need milk, and cow milk and soy milk are excellent sources of protein, which makes us feel less hungry.That way, chai tea is much more effective than some other types of tea when it comes to weight loss.Due to its high nutritional value and protein-rich content, you may use chai tea as a power drink or power snack.Even in this regard, black tea is effective, albeit during short periods of time.Black tea possesses certain chemical compounds which increase the efficiency of your body’s process of burning fat and reduces the amount of fat absorbed from the consumed food.Three cups of black tea per day sho uld be more than enough, according to some researches, but as we’ve said, the effect is lost after a while.It must be mentioned that the fat-burning effects of black pepper are observed primarily on animals. We are yet to see if black pepper is as equally effective.Also, since chai tea comes heavily sweetened in the stores and cafés, make sure you avoid this high-level sugar entry, since it would cancel any positive effect of black pepper.5.  Perfect Substitution for Coffee Since one of the key ingredients of chai tea is black tea, chai tea is rich with caffeine, so it can be used as a natural substitute for coffee.And with the spices added to the mix, drinking a cup of chai tea in the morning is a pretty effective way of waking yourself up, and giving yourself some of that ever so needed extra energy to get you through the day.It is hard to determine the exact level of caffeine concentration in chai tea since the number of black tea leaves differ from one cup/kind of chai tea to another.It is generally considered that an average cup of chai tea contains about one-third of the caffeine concentration found in the average cup of coffee.This is actually great for all of you need to stop drinking coffee (or severely reduce its intake).You’ll be able to drink several cups of chai tea per day without feeling the side effects that you usually get when drinking too much coffee and you won’t need to worry about the overly big daily dosage of caffeine.6.  Pain-Relieving Properties The pain-relieving features of chai tea have long since been noted.The mix of spices usually found within it is a very effective way of dealing with various pains and aches.They’re able to successfully alleviate even the more serious pains, such that of arthritis.This is thanks to the anti-inflammatory features some of its spices have, and some we’ve already mentioned: clove and ginger.Ginger is able to effectively deal with inflammations. In its root form, it can lessen the pain we feel while suffering from strong migraines, while common headaches pose even less of a problem.Ginger can also enhance your blood flow, thus helping the body deal with pain more quickly and efficiently.Clove, on the other hand, has been a mainstay in the homeopathic traditions worldwide.It is widely used for dealing with a toothache, and you can use it to create a special gel which strong anesthetic features similar to those of benzocaine.7.  Prevention of Chronic Deceases Chai tea is a polyphenol-rich beverage, which makes it very useful when it comes to destroying free radicals.Free radicals are compounds which damage our cells, and they are caused by chemicals and pollutants.Free radicals are connected with different kinds of cancer and Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s deceases.An average cup of chai tea contains a greater amount of polyphenols than it can be found in most fruits and vegetables.This means that drinking chai tea will help you protect your cells and enhance your he alth in general.Add to it the antioxidant nature of clove and cinnamon, and you get an additional defense against bacteria and viruses.Bonus feature: antioxidants are able to somewhat stop one’s aging!DOSAGE AND POTENTIAL SIDE EFFECTSAn old Chinese saying says: “when things reach an extreme, they can only go in the opposite direction”.This essentially means that too much good can go bad.Taking this into consideration, and all the beneficial properties of chai tea, we cannot help but ask: “What is the optimal daily dosage of chai tea?”The answer is quite simple really: there isn’t any. It is still very unclear just how much chai tea a person should drink in order to feel all aforementioned the positive effects, nor do we know just how much chai tea is too much.Even the research conducted so far mostly focuses on individual features; but there are no conclusive results when it comes to creating the ultimate chai tea recipe, with all the ingredients mixed together so all of their individual beneficial properties are increased to their maximum strength.When it comes to side effects caused by drinking too much chai tea, one of the most obvious ones is the increased caffeine intake.Excessive amounts of caffeine in one’s body can cause high blood pressure, anxiety, sleeping problems, and increased blood pressure.Pregnant women should be especially careful in this case because they’d be in danger of miscarriage.Luckily, chai tea has significantly less caffeine than coffee, so it’s highly unlikely that a person can suffer the consequences of excessive caffeine intake.Still, better safe than sorry.Another important thing to have in mind is ginger and its effects.If you’re suffering from low blood pressure or low blood sugar, take care not to consume too much ginger while drinking chai tea.Either severely reduce the amount of ginger in your chai tea, or how simply don’t include it in the spice mixture.Finally, lactose-intolerant individuals should b ear in mind that milk is one of the most common chai tea ingredients, so they should either order or make chai tea with water instead of milk. HOW TO BREW CHAI TEA? As we have already stated, chai tea can be prepared in so many different ways.Different basic teas, different mixtures of spices, the sheer number of possible combinations are just astonishing!And since different teas have different optimal cooking temperatures, it would be wise to ask your tea vendor for instructions when it comes to proper brewing.Here are some pieces of advice you may find useful in case you want to test your skills and brew yourself a nice cup of chai tea.Depending on your taste, you can brew chai tea in water, milk, or the mixture of the two. Be careful not to let the milk boil, should you choose to brew your chai tea with milk, since that will distort the taste when done;If you’re brewing chai tea for the first time, use the instructions given by your vendor, or those written on the package. Intr oduce your own options as your taste and skill develop;If you’re brewing your tea in water, make sure that water is as pure as possible. Spring water would be an ideal choice, but if not available, use whatever you can. Don’t forget to keep your steeping vessel covered in order to avoid any potential heat loss;Don’t over steep your chai! If over steeped, chai tea becomes bitter, so try it out after the steeping period noted in the instructions, and if the taste suits you, stop steeping it. If not, steep it a bit longer;Black tea leaves and green tea leaves require different brewing temperatures. For black tea, you’ll need stronger temperatures and a bit more time for brewing. Chai tea with green tea as a basis should be steeped in lower temperatures.Please bear all this in mind, and do not hesitate to ask your vendor any and all questions regarding the proper tea brewing, and enjoy your very first cup of chai tea!If you need some recipes for making chai tea you can find them here, or you check out the link below. FINAL WORDChai tea is a timeless beverage, a mixture of various elements working in nigh-perfect synergy, providing both amazing and unique taste and the multitude of health benefits.Its popularity is more than deserved, and there is so much more it can offer.The full extent of its medical application is yet to be researched, but they are, beyond any doubt, most effective.But you don’t need to trust us â€" try it out for yourself, and see how it works.We’re sure you’ll love it!

Analysis Of The House Of Mirth By Lara Saltz - 1522 Words

Selden, in The House of Mirth, is a character that is part of the Elite class, but that doesn’t allow the constraints of the elites shadow his vision. In her essay, Lara Saltz argues â€Å"Selden is able to see â€Å"real,† poetic Lily because he possesses both an acute eye for what is materially in front of him (Saltz 1).† She continues on with this thesis, arguing that Selden posses a balance between realism and imagination, that allows him to see the real Lily, during her performance of Sir Joshua Reynold’s pain, Mrs Lloyd. Evidence in the novel showing that Selden can see past the illusions of high life, can be seen in Lily realizing that Selden is detached from the social world, the discussion of love between Lily and Selden and Lily’s final confrontation of Selden and subsequent death. These three pieces of evidence support Saltz’s assertion that Selden can see things for what they really are due to his ability to balance realism and imagination. The first, being Lily’s observation that Selden is detached from the social class. The party, being thrown by Mrs. Trenor, is the stage in which Lily discovers that Selden is detached from social class. The entire affair, starts with Lily being asked to help, it seems, to plan the weeding. during this planning, it is discovered that Mrs. Trenor has scheduled the party in conflict with another character’s own party. They move in this sense, not really caring about who will be offended and even offer their own view to placate any

Juno Design Mise-En-Scene Essay - 1378 Words

Topic 1 – Design Mise-en-scene A movie is not just a motion picture, it is an art form. An art form that is put together by many shots and with that several shots it makes a scene. Editing shots and scenes can setup the mise-en-scene, also known as staging, and the visual design of a film. In the film, Juno (2007) Directed by Jason Reitman, it starts off showing a pregnant teen walking down a pathway with a sunny d drink, this shows the audience that the director is trying to tell us that Ellen Page is the main character of this film. The directorial decisions made in this film can be analyzed only if the audience catches what the director is trying to say or make us see. From the lighting to the composition of the film it can set up†¦show more content†¦The director wants the audience to have a depth of perception in the film; from using that style of composition it can show a surprise or suspense within the film. Music can play a big role in a director’s vision of making this film. Using sound an d light can make the audience expect what is going to happen next or maybe can trick the audience of what is expected. Just by using the tempo of sound which beats like someone’s heart can show a sense of suspense, which then you can find the rising action. In the beginning of the film Juno walks to the store and buys a pregnancy test and finds out that she is pregnant is one event that the film demonstrates rising action. When Juno has the struggle to telling her father and step mother that she is pregnant and when Juno meets the parents in the penny saver for the first time are more key events demonstrating rising action that the director shows in the film. The Climax of the film is when Juno finally gives birth to her child and Pualie Beeker already knows where she is when she doesn’t show up for his track competition which is a typical Hollywood-style of storytelling when he runs to

Everything That Rises Must Converge by Flannery O Connors Free Essays

In Flannery O†Connors† â€Å"Everything That Rises Must Converge†, the character of Julian sees his mother as racist and narrow-minded due to her sheltered upbringing and lack of knowledge and education of the black struggle for equality. He feels that due to his education that he has a higher understanding of social structure and inequality that his mother lacks, and he loathes her for this reason. However, despite his higher education, he still depends on his mother for financial support even as a grown man, and has a repressed emotional dependency on her. We will write a custom essay sample on Everything That Rises Must Converge by Flannery O Connors or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is the inner character conflict that Julian faces. In reality, Julian is as facetious and narrow-minded as his mother, he simply refuses to come to terms with this harsh reality, and as a result he plays off his own inadequacies and shallowness on his mother, by criticizing her and having a negative and depressing view of her. He must come to terms with his repressed dependency on his mother and deep-seeded feelings of failure and personal inadequacy. Unfortunately, it takes the event of his mother†s stroke to realize that Julian must take care and depend on himself, and realize that he and his mother are almost identical in their social views and failures. The first instance of Julian†s facetiousness is seen on the walk to the bus station with his mother on their way to her weight reducing class. His mother finds herself on the topic of the recent African American civil rights movement, and how she remembers when she lived in the south on a rich plantation with two hundred slaves. Julian tells her to stop talking about it, showing his non-racist and modern views, unlike his mother. However, he finds himself thinking of how the old plantation house must have looked before it became run down and abandoned, â€Å"Negroes were living in it. But it remained in his mind as his mother had known it. It appeared in his dreams regularly†(O†Connor 1082). He fantasizes about the plantation mansion†s glory days, an obvious example of how his external behavior is different than his inner true feelings and wishes. As Booth illustrates, â€Å"what kind of man is it, we ask, who always belies his true feelings? His life is full of such contradictions†(1634). Julian lies to himself to cover his true self, that of a shallow failure. Then, after Julian and his mother get on the bus, a second instance of his inner-failure and true pathetic character is demonstrated. Despite his supposed high education and writing talent, he depends on his mother for money and shelter, and sells typewriters. His mother is shown on the same parallel of facetiousness as she comments on the bus to another passenger, â€Å"He wants to write but he†s selling typewriters until he gets started . . .. I tell him that Rome wasn†t built in a day†(O†Conner 1084). Despite the obvious personal failure, despite a college education is denied internally by Julian and externally by his mother, playing off Julian†s failure as taking his time. Julian pushes out his failure when put on the spot by entering a â€Å"mental bubble in which he established himself . . . From it he could see out and judge but in it was safe from any kind of penetration from without†(O†Connor 1084). Julian goes on to daydream about various scenarios that he could upset his mother by bringing an African-American into there lives, such as dating a black woman, further punctuating his false belief of racial equality using blacks as experiments. A second instance of Julian†s repressed racism is seen when an African-American man enters the bus and Julian attempts to engage him in conversation to spite his mother, however, this action shows that Julian really does not view African Americans as people. Despite his assertions of social awareness, he views blacks as guinea pigs to be used to test his mother†s tolerance of his actions. When a second African-American enters the bus, this time a woman with a child, the final instance of Julian†s insecurities and dependencies is realized. Upon exiting the bus Julian†s mother insists upon giving the African-American woman†s child a penny. This may be seen as a gesture of condescension, or that she thinks the black mother and child are poor, but in reality, it seems to simply be a friendly gesture she would do to any child, despite color. The black woman snaps in return, shouting at Julian†s mother that her child does not take money from anyone. This shock of rejection from an African-American causes her stroke, and in return, Julians epiphany. After he realizes what has happened, he comes to terms with his failures and dependency, he discovers he truly loves his mother, he shouts, â€Å"Darling, sweetheart, wait! â€Å"(O†Connor 1091). He then enters a world of â€Å"guilt and sorrow†(O†Connor 1091). His previous thoughts that he had no emotional dependency on his mother, that he was superior to her, are shattered in his realization of his true self. His journey to self-identity is complete, and he must now care for at least his mother, but most importantly, himself. How to cite Everything That Rises Must Converge by Flannery O Connors, Papers

Road Rage Reactions in Drivers Essay Example

Road Rage Reactions in Drivers Paper This experiment aimed to investigate road rage reactions in drivers. It used a 22 independent groups factorial design. The independent variables were vehicle status and participant gender. The dependent variables were the duration of any verbal road rage reactions made by participants, participants questionnaire scores on the Propensity to Angry Driving Scale and participants heart rates before and after the experiment. The main hypothesis is that duration of verbal road rage reactions will be affected as a result of participant gender and/or the status of the confederates vehicle. A 2-way ANOVA for independent groups was conducted to determine the effect of gender and vehicle status on the duration of ps road rage responses. Levenes test of equality of error variances was first carried out on the data, as this was not significant we can assume that the variances of the different conditions are similar and thus the subsequent ANOVA output may be used. The status main effect indicates that when the confederate drove a high status vehicle, males spent longer in their road rage reactions than when the confederate drove a low status vehicle. The differences for females depending on the status of the vehicle are shown only to be small. Overall the high status vehicle induces a longer duration of road rage. The gender main effect shows that females spend less time making verbal road rage reactions compared to males, when the vehicle was of high status; there was no major difference for low status vehicles. Interaction effects: represent the extent to which the dependent variable is influenced by the combined effect of two or more of the independent variables. We will write a custom essay sample on Road Rage Reactions in Drivers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Road Rage Reactions in Drivers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Road Rage Reactions in Drivers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Distracted driving PSA Essays - Transport, Road Safety, Free Essays

Distracted driving PSA Essays - Transport, Road Safety, Free Essays Distracted driving PSA Distracted driving is the act of driving while engaged in other activities; such as looking after children, talking on the phone or to a passenger, texting , eating , watching videos , rubbernecking or reading. These activities take the driver's attention away from the road. All distractions compromise the safety of the driver, passengers, bystanders and those in other vehicles. In 2015 alone, 3,477 people were killed, and 391,000 were injured in motor vehicle crashe s involving distracted drivers. During daylight hours, approximately 660,000 drivers are using cell phones while driving. That creates enormous potential for deaths and injuries on U.S. roads. Teens were the largest age group reported as distracted at the time of fatal crashes. Beginning July 1, 2013 texting while driving becomes a primary traffic offense in Virginia. It is illegal for any person operating a moving motor vehicle on the state's highways to use any handheld personal communications device It is also unlawful to read any email or text message currently transmitted to or previously stored within the device. Violation of any provision of this section shall constitute a traffic infraction punishable, for a first offense, by a fine of $125 and, for a second or subsequent offense, by a fine of $250. Do you know Each day, 9 people are killed and over 1,000 are injured in crashes involving distracted driving.

SAT Score Tables - Compare Admissions Data for Colleges

SAT Score Tables - Compare Admissions Data for Colleges Below youll find links to dozens of articles that can help you put your SAT scores in context for a wide range of colleges and universities. Always keep in mind that the SAT is just one part of your application, and less-than-ideal scores dont need to torpedo your chances of admission if you have strengths in other areas. Top College and University SAT Tables: See how the countrys most prestigious colleges and universities compare on the SAT front (or you can check out the ACT comparison charts). The Ivy LeagueTop Universities (non-Ivy)Top 10 Liberal Arts CollegesTop 10 Public Universities22 More Top Public UniversitiesTop Public Liberal Arts CollegesTop Engineering Schools (PhD Granting)Top Engineering Schools (Bachelors and Masters)Top Womens CollegesTop Catholic Colleges and Universities State University SAT Data: Admissions criteria vary widely from campus to campus within state university systems. These charts can help you find schools that match your SAT scores. Alabama: Four-Year Alabama Colleges and UniversitiesAlaska: Four-Year Alaska Colleges and UniversitiesArizona: Four-Year Arizona Colleges and UniversitiesArkansas: Four-Year Arkansas Colleges and UniversitiesCalifornia: Cal State SystemCalifornia: UC SystemCalifornia: Top California Colleges and UniversitiesColorado: Four-Year Colorado CollegesConnecticut: Four-Year Colleges and UniversitiesDelaware: Four-Year Delaware Colleges and UniversitiesDistrict of Columbia: Four-Year Washington D.C. Colleges and UniversitiesFlorida: State University SystemFlorida: Top Florida Colleges and UniversitiesGeorgia: Top Georgia Colleges and UniversitiesHawaii: Four-Year Hawaii Colleges and UniversitiesIdaho: Four-Year Idaho Colleges and UniversitiesIllinois: Top Illinois Colleges and UniversitiesIndiana: 15 Top Indiana Colleges and UniversitiesIowas: Four-Year Iowa Colleges and UniversitiesKansas: Four-Year Kansas Colleges and UniversitiesKentucky: Four-Year Kentucky Colleges and UniversitiesLouisia na: Four-Year Louisiana Colleges and Universities Maine: Four-Year Maine Collegs and UniversitiesMaryland: Top Maryland Collegs and UniversitiesMassachusetts: Top Massachusetts Collegs and UniversitiesMichigan: 13 Top Michigan Colleges and UniversitiesMinnesota: 13 Top Minnesota Colleges and UniversitiesMississippi: Four-Year Mississippi Colleges and UniversitiesMissouri: 12 Top Missouri Colleges and UniversitiesMontana: Four-Year Montana Colleges and UniversitiesNebraska: Four-Year Nebraska Colleges and UniversitiesNevada: Four-Year Nevada Colleges and UniversitiesNew Hampshire: New Hampshire Colleges and UniversitiesNew Jersey: Four-Year New Jersey Colleges and UniversitiesNew Mexico: Four-Year New Mexico Colleges and UniversitiesNew York: CUNY Senior CollegesNew York: SUNY SystemNew York: Top New York Colleges and UniversitiesNorth Carolina: 16 Public UniversitiesNorth Carolina: Top North Carolina Colleges and UniversitiesNorth Dakota: Four-Year North Dakota Colleges and UniversitiesOhio: 10 Top Ohio Colleges and UniversitiesOhio : 13 University System of Ohio campuses Oklahoma: Four-Year Oklahoma Colleges and UniversitiesOregon: Selective Oregon Colleges and UniversitiesPennsylvania: Top Pennsylania Colleges and UniversitiesRhode Island: Four-Year Rhode Island Colleges and UniversitiesSouth Carolina: Four-Year South Carolina Colleges and UniversitiesSouth Dakota: Four-Year South Dakota Colleges and UniversitiesTennessee: Top Tennessee Collegs and UniversitiesTexas: 13 Top Texas Colleges and UniversitiesUtah: Four-Year Utah Colleges and UniversitiesVermont: Four-Year Vermont Colleges and UniversitiesVirginia: 15 Public UniversitiesVirginia: 17 Top Virginia Colleges and UniversitiesWashington: 11 Top Washington Colleges and UniversitiesWest Virginia: Four-Year West Virginia Colleges and UniversitiesWisconsin: Four-Year Wisconsin Colleges and Universities SAT Scores for Division I Athletic Conferences: For students interested in the excitement of Division I sports, these charts make some of the admissions distinctions between universities clear. America East ConferenceAtlantic 10 ConferenceAtlantic Coast ConferenceAtlantic Sun ConferenceBig East ConferenceBig Sky ConferenceBig South ConferenceBig Ten ConferenceBig 12 ConferenceConference USA (C-USA)Horizon LeagueMetro Atlantic Athletic ConferenceMid-American ConferenceMissouri Valley ConferenceMountain West ConferenceNortheast ConferenceOhio Valley ConferencePac 12Â  ConferenceSoutheastern ConferenceSouthern ConferenceSun Belt ConferenceWestern Athletic Conference More SAT Information: Here are some more articles to help you make sense of the SAT. Whats a Good SAT Score?What Schools Dont Require Scores?When is the SAT?Should I use SAT Score Choice?What Schools Require SAT Subject Tests?Are SAT Prep Courses Worth the Cost?Does the SAT Writing Section Matter?

Resume Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Resume - Assignment Example Employed as a full time cashier from the opening of the store at its present location. Responsible for interaction with customers, high volume cash handling and worked in conjunction with the other Lead Cashier. Total of 9 cashiers that would report to not only myself but also the other Lead Cashier with any issues that may have arisen. Duties primarily involved customer service provided to individuals that entered into the store each day. Expected to answer any questions that may have arisen. Retrieved shopping carts from the parking lot each day. By 2003, upgraded to part time cashier as primary duties. Expected to handle high volume sales, customer inquiries and other details as dictated by Manager/Asst. Manager on duty. Attended local high school between 1998 & 2002. Final GPA earned was a 3.56. While in school, took part in extracurricular activities such as: Track & Field, Yearbook, as well as Cross Country & Drama Club. Attached you will find a copy of my resume, for the Lead Cashier position currently available in the Wal Mart store #6582. With the background experience that I have amassed while employed at such companies as Target, Bed Bath & Beyond, Toys ‘R Us & Kmart, I am confident that those skills will fit within the requirements in place for the position that you are currently seeking to

Citizenship Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Citizenship - Article Example Philosophers and political theorists including Kant, Hobbes, Marx, Machiavelli and Locke etc have presented different views and articulated various theories to define the manners, rights and obligations of citizenship. Their works indicate directly and indirectly the factors supportive in maintaining peaceful atmosphere within a social set up. They have also indicated the basic causes and circumstances leading the nations towards the path of conflict and destruction. The term citizenship simply refers to the membership of a country, a state, a tribe, a community or an authority, which creates rights and duties between citizens and the state. The individuals are bound to abide by the norms, values, mores, taboos and laws determined by the authorities to keep peace and solidarity in its fold. Citizenship not only implements wide range of obligations on citizens, but also offers them many opportunities to grow, make progress, involve into social, political, cultural, religious, economic and other peaceful activities on the one hand, and assures the individuals peaceful environment, security of life, honour and belongings, legal remedies, justice and equality within its platform on the other. Looking into the history of the world from the most primitive societies of Palaeolithic and Neolithic eras to the most modern ones of contemporary technological age, it becomes evident that social inequality and injustices always existed in all human societies give birth to stratification and conflict. Philosophers and thinkers have defined the causes and consequences of conflict between different groups and remedies for it in order to escape anarchical situation in the society. Sociological researches too reveal the very fact that even during the ancient times different classes existed in every culture and civilization.Kant emphatically submits that the state of peace among the people living side by side and remaining in constant interaction with one another cannot be remained peaceful, as it is in the nature of man to contain differences with other fellow-beings. It is therefore it is war rather than peace which could be stated as the natural one. The same is the case with nations and states which are at warring positions in the one way or the other. Many wars took place between the Greeks and the Persians time and again sabotaging the peace and harmony of the countries. Absence of any regularity authority to check the advances of the c onflicting states kept them in constant war position. The Athenians declared these wars as the golden chapter of their history, though it cost hundreds of lives as well as pushed the economy to a sorry state. "In Ionia (the modern Aegean coast of Turkey) the Greek cities, which included great centres such as Miletus and Halicarnassus, were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of the Persian Empire in the mid 6th century B.C. In 499 BC the Greeks rose in the Ionian Revolt, and Athens and some other Greek cities went to their aid." (Quoted in http://www.crystalinks.com/greeksocial.html) The Persians invaded

Regression Analysis for the Netherlands

Regression Analysis for the Netherlands TABLE OF FIGURES AND GRAPHS Table 1: Coefficients of estimated OLS model Table 2: Analysis of Variance and F-statistic Table 3: Paired t-sample tests Table 4: Analysis of Variance for pre structural break (b,c) Table 5: Analysis of Variance for post structural break (b,c) Table 6: Analysis of Variance and F-statistic Table 7: Pearson’s Correlations Graph 1: Scatterplot with best fit line Graph 2: Simple scatterplot of imports Introduction The following document analyses the import aggregate demand for the Netherlands utilising data from the first quarter 1977 to the first quarter 2006. The aim is to determine the relationship between imports and five explanatory variables: relative prices (measured as the ratio of import to domestic prices), household consumption expenditures, government consumption expenditures, investment expenditures and exports. A regression utilising Ordinary Least Squares is run and then a series of analyses is done on the results of the estimated model. Model Estimation Data for the Netherlands was obtained from 1st quarter 1977 to 1st quarter 2006 from the International Monetary Fund’s International Financial Statistics, giving a sample population N = 117 and 116 degrees of freedom. It is worth noting that due to the use of the euro to report Netherland’s accounts starting in 1999, there was a break in the information presented as they were in two currencies pre 1999 (in Dutch gulden) and post 1999 (euros). In order to overcome this, all of the data was transformed into Dutch gulden, using the official euro/gulden exchange rate at the time of the entry of the euro. To prepare the data for the regression, the natural log of the values for imports (M), relative prices (RP)—the index of import prices to consumer prices, household consumption expenditure (HC), government consumption expenditure (GC), investment expenditure (INV) and exports (EXP) were taken. By using SPSS to estimate the model via Ordinary Least Squares, the aggregate demand function (utilising the unstandardised coefficients) is estimated as: M = 0.071 – 0.966 RP – 0.328 HC – 0.171 GC + 0.286 INV + 0.808 EXP Std errors: (0.041) (0.022) (0.053) (0.035) (0.033) (0.026) The model has an adjusted R2 = 0.992, indicating that 99.2% of the variance in imports is explained by the relative price and the four expenditure components. It has a standard error of regression of 0.02715. With regards to the explanatory variables included in the regression, by analysing their t-values we are able to determine that each coefficient is statistically significant at all levels. Table 1 shows the results of the estimated coefficients along with their corresponding t-values and significance values. Table 1: Coefficients of estimated OLS model a Dependent Variable: LN_M Plotting the values of imports (as ln(M)) with regards to the standardised predicted values from the model, we get the best-fit curve shown in graph 1. Graph 1: Scatterplot with best fit line Interpretation of slope coefficients The estimated coefficients from the regression above can now be interpreted. The results are presented again for ease of reading: M = 0.071 – 0.966 RP – 0.328 HC – 0.171 GC + 0.286 INV + 0.808 EXP In general terms, each slope coefficient is the import elasticity with respect to each of the equation components: relative prices, household consumption, government consumption, investment expenditures and exports. Following is the explanation for each coefficient: machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs, clothing from germ, belg and china ÃŽ ²2 = -0.966 represents the relative price import elasticity. This implies that a 1% increase in relative prices causes a reduction in imports of 0.966%. This is basically a unitary elasticity, the effect of a change in relative prices is almost identically reflected on imports. This occurs primarily in countries with an open economy that thrives on the balance of trade. Additionally, since the Netherlands’ most important trade partners are within the European Union, who use the same currency, the relative prices are similar for them. (Atlapedia Online, 2006) ÃŽ ²3 = -0.328 represents the elasticity of imports with respect to household consumption expenditure. It implies that a 1% increase in household consumption expenditure will translate into a 0.328% decrease in imports. The import elasticity of household consumption is inelastic. Household consumption has a small effect on imports, as although Netherlands does import foodstuffs and clothing, the bulk of imports is for machinery and transport equipment as well as chemicals, which have no relation with household consumption. (CIA World Factbook, 2006) ÃŽ ²4 = -0.171 represents the import elasticity with respect to government consumption expenditures. It follows that a 1% increase in government expenditure will result in a reduction in imports of 0.171%. The import elasticity of government consumption is highly inelastic. Due to the nature of imports mentioned in the paragraph above, it is logical to assume that the import composition is not widely affected by government consumption, except maybe in the import of fuels. ÃŽ ²5 = 0.286 is the import elasticity with respect to investment expenditure. It is a positive inelastic import elasticity as a 1% increase in investment expenditure will result in a 0.286% increase in imports. This makes sense with reality since investment expenditures are in part for importing machinery and transport goods. ÃŽ ²6 = 0.808 is the import elasticity with respect to exports. It shows that a 1% increase in exports will result in a 0.808% increase in imports. This elasticity is also elastic, although it is more similar to the relative price import elasticity, approximating unit elasticity. This also reflects the Netherlands’ open economy and its active trading with neighbouring countries as a result of forming part of the European Union. Overall significance of the regression Now that we have seen the interpretations of each of the coefficients of our estimated model, and having seen that they are all statistically significant, we have to analyse whether the model as a whole is statistically significant. This is done by analysing the F-value of the regression. If the value of F is sufficiently large with a high confidence level, then it follows that the estimation we have done does indeed predict some of the values we have observed and the regression is statistically significant. For this regression, SPSS calculates the F-value as 2784.8, which is statistically significant at all confidence levels. As mentioned above, this confirms the validity of the predicted equation in estimating the values of the components of imports. Table 2 below presents SPSS’ results for the F-statistic and Analysis of Variance for our model. Table 2: Analysis of Variance and F-statistic a Predictors: (Constant), LN_EXP, LN_RP, LN_INV, LN_GC, LN_HC b Dependent Variable: LN_M Test of equality of import elasticities After having tested that the model as a whole is statistically significant, we will now test whether each of the import elasticities of final expenditures are equal amongst themselves. In order to do this, we will use a paired t-test, which will compare each elasticity against each other and determine whether the differences between them are statistically significant or not. If they are not statistically significant, then the elasticities are the same. In the case of our estimated model, the t-statistics are significant at all levels for all of the relationships. This means that we cannot conclude that each of the import elasticities is the same, rather they are statistically significantly different from one another. Table 3 shows the results provided by SPSS’ paired t-test for each of the import elasticity relationships tested: Table 3: Paired t-sample tests The Behaviour of Imports from 1977 to 2006 Having verified that our model is statistically significant and that each elasticity of imports is different, we now analyse the behaviour of imports during our sample period. The easiest way to do so is graphically. Using the scatterplot function from SPSS we plot the observed values of the Netherlands’ imports from 1st quarter 1977 to 1st quarter 2006. Graph 2 below shoes this relationship: Graph 2: Simple scatterplot of imports A structural break in imports From the graph above, there seems to be a structural break around 2nd quarter 2002. This would make sense since it was around this time that the actual euro currency replaced the Dutch gulden (and all other European currencies for that matter). Such a significant change would be reflected in imports. The actual occurrence of such a break, can be tested statistically using our observed data. This is done via a Chow Test, where we test whether the coefficients in our estimated equation are the same before and after the suspected structural break point, Q2 2002. However, since SPSS does not have a command for the Chow Test, we do this analysis by calculating an incremental F-value from a constrained (the model divided into the two periods pre Q2 2002 and post Q2 2002) and an unconstrained model (our original estimation). The constrained model used divides our data into two, as mentioned above. The group labelled as â€Å"pre† represents observed values from Q1 1977 to Q2 2002, whilst the group labelled â€Å"pos† represents values from Q3 2002 to Q1 2006. Running a regression and using the Anova functionality on the constrained model yields the results presented in tables 4 and 5. : Table 4: Analysis of Variance for pre structural break (b,c) a Predictors: (Constant), LN_EXP, LN_RP, LN_INV, LN_GC, LN_HC b Dependent Variable: LN_M c struct_break = pre Table 5: Analysis of Variance for post structural break (b,c) a Predictors: (Constant), LN_EXP, LN_HC, LN_INV, LN_RP, LN_GC b Dependent Variable: LN_M c struct_break = pos Utilising the above with the results from the original unconstrained model: Table 6: Analysis of Variance and F-statistic a Predictors: (Constant), LN_EXP, LN_RP, LN_INV, LN_GC, LN_HC b Dependent Variable: LN_M the incremental F-value is calculated using the residual sums of squares and degrees of freedom of the constrained and unconstrained models. In this case as: F6,105 = [(0.063 -0.082)*(117 – 2*5-2)] / (0.082 * 6) = -4.05 The f-value of -4.05 when compared to the critical value of F6,105 = 2.19 at the 5% confidence level and 2.98 at the 1% confidence level, causes us to reject the null hypothesis which means that there is a difference in the coefficients between the â€Å"pre† and â€Å"pos† periods we chose. This confirms that there was a structural break in the 2nd quarter of 2002. Autocorrelation We can now check if our estimated model suffers from autocorrelation by examining the Durbin-Watson statistic. According to a statistical table for Durbin-Watson statistics, the critical values for the Durbin-Watson statistic with N = 117 and k = 6, at the 5% confidence level are dL = 1.61045 and dU = 1.78828. In this model, the D-W statistic was calculated by SPSS as 0.661. This implies that the model does suffer from autocorrelation, as the statistic falls below the lower critical value. It has positive autocorrelation. To correct this, we have to determine whether or not the aggregate demand relation is in fact linear, otherwise we need to choose a different functional form and re-run our regression. If we do have the correct functional form, we need to determine whether there are any other variables which can be included in the model to help explain the effect on imports and which may eliminate this autocorrelation. Any changes that are made to the model or the data itself will i mply that a new regression must be run and new tests for autocorrelation carried out until this problem is eliminated. Correlation of final expenditure components Only because the model as a whole suffers from autocorrelation, it does not mean that each of the explanatory variables is significantly correlated. In order to test this, we must calculate Pearson’s correlation coefficient. SPSS can calculate these coefficients by analysing the relationship between each one of the variables with the others in the equation. Table 7 below shows the results from SPSS, as well as the statistical significance of each of the calculated correlation coefficients. Table 7: Pearson’s Correlations ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). As can be seen, all of the correlation coefficients are statistically significant at all levels, thus they are positively correlated. The highest correlations are between household consumption expenditures and the other three expenditure components: government consumption, investments and exports with correlation coefficients of 0.954, 0.950 and 0.933 respectively. This means that these variables vary together in a linear manner. Due to this high level of statistically significant correlation, the premise of regressing the model via OLS and the corresponding interpretations are put into question, as one of the basic premises is that the value of each coefficient represents the change it causes on the independent variable, leaving the rest of the explanatory variables unchanged. Yet, if they are so highly correlated, you cannot assume that they can ever be unchanged. Conclusions Through the analysis of the Netherlands’ quarterly statistics on imports, relative import/domestic prices, household consumption, government consumption, investments and exports, we estimated via OLS a model to explain elasticity of imports. We underwent a series of analysis of the results of the model, finding that our estimate is statistically significant, as are each of the individual import elasticities. Additionally, we were able to demonstrate that the switch of currency to the euro caused a structural break in the import relationship. Notwithstanding this, the estimated model suffers from autocorrelation, which brings into question whether the OLS approach and its findings are in fact correct. Additionally, the high correlations that exist between the various expenditure components also puts into question our interpretations of the estimated coefficients, as none of them can be fully isolated to measure the effect on imports. References Atlapedia Online, 2006, Netherlands [online], available at: http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/netherla.htm [accessed 12 December 2006] Biokin, Ltd., 2006, Critical values of F-statistics [online], (updated 16 November 2006), Available at http://www.biokin.com/tools/fcrit.html [accessed on 10 December 2006] Central Intelligence Agency, 2006, The World Factbook: Netherlands [online], updated on 30 November 2006, available at: https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/nl.html [accessed on 11 December 2006] Critical Values for the Durbin-Watson Test: 5% Significance Level [online]. Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/~clint/bench/dw05b.htm [accessed 10 December 2006] Hamilton, J.D., 1994, Time Series Analysis, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Financial Statistics (IFS) November 2006, ESDS International, (MIMAS) University of Manchester.

Google vs. Yahoo

Many people around the world use search engines everyday to find information quickly. However, not many people realize that each search engine is different from each other. Every search engine is unique because they will all produce different links when a word or phrase is searched for. This means that some search engines will be better than others. Two main search engines are Yahoo and Google. Although Yahoo and Google both perform the same task, Google is a better search engine because it has a simple layout and provides links that are more relevant to the item that is being searched for.Google has a simple homepage that is about 90% white with a search bar in the center below its logo. Yahoo's homepage has a variety of items on it such as moving images and attention-grabbing headlines. This argument may seem like it is in favor of Yahoo, but in reality Yahoo's flashy homepage can distract people for a long time. People that go to Yahoo can waste their time reading about topics tha t have nothing to do with what they originally wanted to search for while people who go to Google aren't distracted by their almost blank layout.Google and Yahoo both provide links with information about the topic that is searched for but Google's links have information that are more related to the topic. Surveys have been done where the most popular search engines (including Google and Yahoo) were tested to see which one gave them the best information about the topic that was searched for. The end result was that 94 out of the 100 people that did the testing agreed that Google was the best search engine because its results were the most relevant.Most of Yahoo's results displayed pages with irrelevant information after the first three or four results. When Google was used, the information that the testers wanted was found in the first or second link. They all said that they didn't have to even go on to the second page because the first page of links was more than enough for them. Go ogle's search engine has been tested and proven to be superior to Yahoo. Although the Internet may seem like a very common thing, many people are still getting introduced to it and its many functions.These types of people will not be used to something such as a search engine so it is important to keep the search engine simple and easy to use. While it is true that Yahoo's homepage can give people an idea about all the things that the Internet can do for them, it may be hard to navigate to something such as the search bar amidst the cluttered bundles of information. I think that we should keep search engines simple so that it will be easy for people new to the Internet to utilize it.

Making History Fun - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 588 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/14 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Steve Berg Period 2 08/28/10 Descriptive Essay Making History Fun Mr. Leonard is the AP American History teacher at Horizon High School. He has been teaching for more than twenty five years and uses his experience to educate the minds of young Horizon students. While Mr. Leonard can be a bit much, he always gets his point across. And if the student shows up for class and pays attention they will be forced to learn the material, even if they don’t realize it. To some, history can be a dull and boring subject but Mr. Leonard makes history an experience. He’s been to historical sites and has seen the things he teaches which helps him explain these historical events to his students. A teacher cannot teach directly from a book, anyone can do that; a teacher must use their own experiences and their own knowledge to truly enlighten young disinterested high school students. Mr. Leonard is a very strange, very loud, and very well educated history teacher that can pass his own personal knowledge down to open minded high school juniors. While some teachers bore students to death with monotonous lectures that seem to last for days; Mr. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Making History Fun" essay for you Create order Leonard shows students that lectures, even in high school, can be interesting. He takes events from that past and tells stories that seem to almost have no point, but while studying or even taking his tests those stories stick in student’s brains and help them remember and understand events and concepts relevant to the time period being studied. Even though he can be a little over the top his methods are proven. Generally, almost all of his students at least pass the Advanced Placement test with the score of a three. This shows his off the wall teaching techniques don’t just work on his tests, but also work on college level exams. Mr. Leonard is a very interesting and extraordinary teacher that prepares his students with outrageous, yet proven, methods. Most high school educators could care less about the students they teach. These lazy teachers would rather talk nonsense for fifteen minutes, and then turn their kids loose for the rest of class. When these under taught students take their tests it isn’t surprising they fail, but it is surprising at how little remorse their teachers feel for not properly preparing them. Mr. Leonard always prepares his students, even if they don’t realize it. He can lecture for the entire hour and some kids in class feel as if they’re only there for fifteen minutes. This is a sign that the man actually knows and cares about what he teaches. He has visited all the battlefields and all the monuments. He doesn’t just teach history, he has a passion for it, and this passion gets passed down to some of his students. This approach of â€Å"stealth teaching† evokes thoughts and ideas never before dreamed of by young high school juniors. If students really want to succeed, they can look to Mr. Leonard not only to help them with grades, but also provide them with knowledge that will make them better overall students and people. He sheds light on history and life, proving to kids that school can in fact be fun and interesting, teaching them things that will help them later on down the road. It is these qualities and much more that make Mr. Leonard one of the best teachers in not only Horizon but in the entire Paradise Valley Unified School District.

The Lucifer Effect Is An Eye Opener For Me - 1919 Words

Reading The Lucifer Effect was an eye opener for me. It got me thinking do we really know anyone for that matter do we know ourselves? There are times in of our lives, have we been astonished to learn about the activities of someone we thought we knew very well. Are those who commit atrocities people with serious character defects or psychopathology, or are they ordinary people responding to an extraordinary situation? The Lucifer Effect delivers some possible rationalizations for these personal mysteries in which we deal with. This book also gives some prospective on perplexed ideas of our own actions that may contradict our previous thought of our own identities. In this reflection paper I will be In The Lucifer Effect Zimbardo addresses a question, â€Å"What makes people go wrong?† (p. 5) He defines the word: â€Å"Evil consists in intentionally behaving in ways that harm, abuse, demean, dehumanize or destroy innocent others—or using one’s authority and systemic power to encourage or permit others to do so on your behalf† (p. 5). As is evident from this definition, the study of evil is the study of particular behaviors and motivations. As such, it could be argued that such a study is within the legitimate province of psychology, although some may be disturbed by this. Zimbardo begins by pointing out that the predominant paradigm in our culture for explaining human behavior is known as the dispositional model, a model that focuses on inner individual personality traits andShow MoreRelatedEssay about Galileo Galilei2120 Words   |  9 Pageshow they saw the world. â€Å"For example, a serious discussion among academics at that time was about the size and shape of hell as depicted in the poem Dantes Inferno, which was another eye opener for the community. Galileo gave a well-received lecture on the topic, including his scientific opinion about how tall Lucifer was† (Bellis). As a result of his lecture, there were positive criticism that helped Galileo score a position at the University of Pisa. â€Å"When he was born there was no such thing as

The Determinants Of Health Framework - 1168 Words

According to Newbold (1998), the determinants of health framework states that health status is dependent not only upon access to health care services, but encompasses a much broader range of determinants, including those of culture and language (p.68). The theme addressed within this paper focuses on how language and culture of Indigenous or Aboriginal peoples, impact their access to healthcare, and overall quality of that care. Aboriginal peoples face many more challenges in maintaining their health in comparison to the general population (Cameron, Camargo Plazas, Santos Salas, Bourque-Bearskin, Hungler, 2014). To understand why this may be, we will be discussing exactly how their culture and language may impact their access to quality healthcare, and how nurses can venture a response to these issues. Language Culture as Issues Language Language barriers have been demonstrated to have adverse effects on access to healthcare, quality of care, patient satisfaction, and on patient outcomes. Aboriginal patients in Canada who lack proficiency in English or French may not have access to the same quality of care as other Canadians (Bowen, 2000). Many Aboriginal peoples, especially those who may have grown up on a reservation, may only know English as a second language, if at all. 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Science Free Essays

Science Free Essays A HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES* by Olivia C. Caoili** Introduction The need to develop a country’s science and technology has generally been recognized as one of the imperatives of socioeconomic progress in the contemporary world. This has become a widespread concern of governments especially since the post world war II years. We will write a custom essay sample on Science or any similar topic only for you Order Now (1) Among Third World countries, an important dimension of this concern is the problem of dependence in science and technology as this is closely tied up with the integrity of their political sovereignty and economic self-reliance. There exists a continuing imbalance between scientific and technological development among contemporary states with 98 per cent of all research and development facilities located in developed countries and almost wholly concerned with the latter’s problems. (2) Dependence or autonomy in science and technology has been a salient issue in conferences sponsored by the United Nations. (3) _______________________ Paper prepared for the University of the Philippines Science Research Foundation in connection with its project on â€Å"Analysis of Conditions for National Scientific and Technological Self-Reliance: The Philippine Situation,† June 1986. **Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, College of Social Sciences and Philosophy. University of the Philippines in Diliman, Quezon City. (1) For a brief summary of the evolution of government oncern for the development of science and technology, see Olivia C. Caoili, Dimensions of Science Policy and National Develo pment: The Philippine Experience, Monograph Series No. 1 (College, Laguna: Center for Policy and Development Studies, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, October 1982), pp. 4-34. (2) Guy B. Gresford and Bertrand H. Chatel, â€Å"Science and Technology in the United Nations,† World Development, Vol. II No. 1 (January 1974), p. 44. 3) See, for example, UNESCO, Science and Technology in Asian Development: Conference and Application of Science and Technology to the Development of Asia, New Delhi, August 1968 (Paris: UNESCO, 1970); United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Development, Vienna, Austria, 1979, in Nature, Vol. 280 (16 August 1979), pp. 525-532. It is within the above context that this paper attempts to examine the history of science and technology in the Philippines. Rather than focusing simply on a straight chronology of events, it seeks to interpret and analyze the interdependent effects of geography, colonial trade, economic and educational policies and socio-cultural factors in shaping the evolution of present Philippine science and technology. As used in this paper, science is concerned with the systematic understanding and explanation of the laws of nature. Scientific activity centers on research, the end result of which is the discovery or production of new knowledge. 4) This new knowledge may or may not have any direct or immediate application. In comparison, technology has often been understood as the â€Å"systematic knowledge of the industrial arts. â€Å"(5) As this knowledge was implemented by means of techniques, technology has become commonly taken to mean both the knowledge and the means of its utilization, that is, â€Å"a body, of knowledge about techniques. â€Å"(6) Modern technology also involves systematic research but i ts outcome is more concrete than science, i. e. the production of â€Å"a thing, a chemical, a process, something to be bought and sold. (7) In the past, science and technology developed separately, with the latter being largely a product of trial and error in response to a particular human need. In modern times, however, the progress of science and technology have become intimately linked together. Many scientific discoveries have been facilitated by the development of new technology. New scientific knowledge in turn has often led to further refinement of existing technology or the invention of entirely new ones. ____________________ (4) Jerome R. Ravetz, Scientific knowledge and Its Social Problems (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), chap. ; James B. Conant, Science and Common Sense (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1974), chap. 2; Bernard Dixon, What is Science For? (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), chap. 2: David Knight, The Nature of Science: The History of Science in Western Culture Since 1600 (London: Andre Deutsch, 1976), chaps. 1-2. (5) E. Layton, â€Å"Conditions of Technological Development,† in Ina Spiegel-Rosing and Derek de Solla Price, eds. , Science, Technology and Society, A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective (London and Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1977), p. 199. (6) C. Freeman, â€Å"Economics of Research and Development. in Rosing and Price, ibid. , p. 235. (7) Derek de Solla Price, Science Since Babylon (Enlarged ed. ; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), p. 125. Precolonial Science and Technology There is a very little reliable written information about Philippine society, culture and technology before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521. (8) As such, one has to reconstruct a picture of this past using contemporary archaeological findings, accounts by early traders and foreign travelers, and the narratives about conditions in the archipelago which were written by the first Spanish missionaries and colonial official s. According to these sources, there were numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient and autonomous communities long before the Spaniards arrived. The early Filipinos had attained a generally simple level of technological development, compared with those of the Chinese and Japanese, but this was sufficient for their needs at that period of time. Archaeological findings indicate that modern men (homo sapiens) from the Asian mainland first came over-land and across narrow channels to live in Palawan and Batangas around 50,000 years ago. For about 40,000 years, they made simple tools or weapons of stone flakes but eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. These Stone Age inhabitants, subsequently formed settlements in the major Philippine islands such as Sulu, Mindanao (Zamboanga, and Davao), Negros, Samar, Luzon (Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, Bulacan and the Cagayan region). By about 3,000 B. C. , they were producing adzes ornaments of seashells and pottery of various designs. The manufacture of pottery subsequently became well developed and flourished for about 2,000 years until it came into competition with imported Chinese porcelain. Thus over time pottery making declined. What has survived of this ancient technology is the lowest level, i. e. , the present manufacture of the ordinary cooking pot among several local communities. (9) Gradually, the early Filipinos learned to make metal tools and implements — copper, gold, bronze and, later, iron. The iron age is considered to have lasted from the second or third century B. C. o the tenth century A. D. Excavations of Philippine graves and work sites have yielded iron slags. These suggest ________________ (8) William Henry Scott in Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History (Rev. ed. ; Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1984), asserts that there are only two authentic medieval Chinese accounts about prehispanic Philippines. He points out questionable documents which have been the basis for information about this period and which were popularized in Philippines History textbooks, including theories that have been mistaken for facts. Cf. Otley Beyer, â€Å"The Philippines before Magellan,† and Robert B. Fox, â€Å"The Philippines in Prehistoric Times,† in readings in Philippine Prehistory (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1979), Second Series, Vol. I, pp. 8-34; 35-61. (9) Scott, op. cit. , pp. 20-22. that Filipinos during this period engaged in the actual extraction of iron from ore, smelting and refining. But it appears that the iron industry, like the manufacture of pottery, did not survive the competition with imported cast iron from Sarawak and much later, from China. (10) By the first century A. D. Filipinos were weaving cotton, smelting iron, making pottery and glass ornaments and were also engaged in agriculture. Lowland rice was cultivated in diked fields, and in the interior mountain regions as in the Cordillera, in terraced fields which utilized spring water. (11) Filipinos had also learned to build boats for the coastal trade. By the tenth century A. D. , this had become a highly developed technology. In fact, the early Spanish chroniclers took note of the refined plank-built warship called caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island trade raids. The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in boat-building and seamanship to fight the raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong as well as to build and man the galleons that sailed to Mexico. (12) By the tenth century A. D. , the inhabitants of Butuan were trading with Champa (Vietnam); those of Ma-i (Mindoro) with China. Chinese records with have now been translated contain a lot of references to the Philippines. These indicate that regular trade relations between the two countries had been well established during the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. Archaeological findings (in various parts of the archipelago) of Chinese porcelains made during this period support this contention. From the Sung (960-1278) and Yuan (1260-1368) Dynasties, there are descriptions of trade with the Philippines, and from the Sung and Ming (1360-1644) Dynasties there are notices of Filipino missions to Peking. (13) ____________________ (10) Ibid. , pp. 18-19. (11) Ibid. , pp. 136-137; Fox. op. cit. , pp. 49-50. (12) Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, first published in 1609, trans. nd ed. by J. S. Cummins (Cambridge: Published for the Hakluyt Society at Cambridge University Press, 1971), pp. 252-253; Francisco Colin, Labor Evangelica (1663) in Horacio de la Costa, S. J. , Readings in Philippine History (Manila: Bookmark, 1965), p. 9; William Henry Scott, â€Å"Boat-Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society,† in Cracks in the Parchment Curtain and Other Essays in Philippine History (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1982) , pp. 60-96. (13) See Scott, Prehispanic Source Materials†¦ , chap. ; Berthold Laufer, â€Å"The Relations of the Chinese to the Philippines,† in Readings in Philippine Prehistory, pp. 142-177; Austin Craig, â€Å"A Thousand Years of Philippine History Before the Coming of the Spaniards,† in ibid. , pp. 128-141. The most frequently cited Chinese account in Philippine history textbooks is that of Chao Ju-Kua in 1225. He described the communities and trading activities in the islands of Ma-i (Mindoro) and San-hsu (literally three islands which present-day historians think refer to the group of Palawan and Calamian Islands). 14) The people of Ma-i and San-hsu traded beeswax, cotton, true pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betelnuts, yu-ta cloth (probably jute or ramie? ) and coconut heart mats for Chinese porcelain, iron pots, lead fishnet sinkers, colored glass beads, iron needles and tin. These were practically the same commodities of trade between the islands and C hina which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they came to the Philippines more than two centuries later. (15) The Filipinos in Mindanao and Sulu traded with Borneo, Malacca and parts of the Malay peninsula. This trade seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the Spaniards reached the archipelago, these trade relations had been firmly established such that the alliance between the rulers of manila and Brunei had become strengthened by marriage. It was through these contacts that Hindu-Buddhist, Malay-Sanskrit and Arab-Muslim Cultural and technological influences spread to the Philippines. There have also been some references (by early travelers during the precolonial period) to trade relations between Japan and the Philippines. To date however, Philippine historians have not found any prehispanic references to the Philippines in Japanese literature of the period. (16) __________________ (14) Chao Ju-Kua was a Superintendent of maritime Trade in Ch’uanchow, Fukien province, when he wrote his Chu Fan Chih (An Account of the Various Barbarians) in 1225. Scott, in Prehispanic Source Materials†¦ pp. 66-70 has a translation of this account. See also â€Å"Chao Ju-Kua’s description of the Philippines in the Thirteenth Century,† in Readings in Philippine Prehistory, pp. 94-196; de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 9-11. (15) See Antonio Pigafetta, First Voyage Around the World and Maximilianus Transylvanus, De Maluccis Insulis (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1969), passim; excerpts of accounts by Garcia Escalante de Alvarado in 1548 and Rodrigo de Espinosa in 1564, in de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 12-13; â€Å"Relation of the Voyage to Luzon,† (1570) in The Colonization and Conquest of the Ph ilippines by Spain, Some contemporary Source Documents, 1559-1577 (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1965), pp. 160-178. 16) Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and J. Warren T. Mason (in Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands, published in London, 1905, and reprinted in Manila by the American Chamber of Commerce of the Philippine Islands, 1925, pp. 8-11), claim that the Japanese not only traded and lived in different parts of the Philippines before the Spaniards arrived, they also taught the Filipinos the art of working in metals, weaving, gold-mining, furniture making, duck-raising and fish-breeding for export. Scott (in Prehispanic Source Materials†¦ pp. 78-79) doubts the authenticity of these reports as research on Japanese literature during this period has yielded no references to prehispanic Philippines. By the time the Spaniards came to colonies the Philippines in 1565, they found many scattered, autonomous village communities (called barangays) all over the archipelago. Th ese were kinship groups or social units rather than political units. They were essentially subsistence economies producing mainly what they needed. These communities exhibited uneven technological development. Settlements along the coastal areas which had been exposed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as Manila, Mindoro, Cebu, Southern Mindanao and Sulu, seem to have attained a more sophisticated technology. In 1570, for example, the Spaniards found the town of Mindoro â€Å"fortified by a stone wall over fourteen feet thick,† and defended by armed Moros — â€Å"bowmen, lancers, and some gunners, linstocks in hand. † There were a â€Å"large number of culverins† all along the hillside of the town. They found Manila similarly defended by a palisade along its front with pieces of artillery at its gate. The house of Raja Soliman (which was burned down by Spaniards) reportedly contained valuable articles of trade — â€Å"money, copper, iron, porcelain, blankets, wax, cotton and wooden vats full of brandy. † Next to his house was a storehouse which contained: much iron and copper; as well as culverins and cannons which had melted. Some small and large cannon had just begun. There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was for a cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin†¦ (17) These reports indicate that the Filipinos in Manila had learned to make and use modern artillery. The Spanish colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice, vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats and fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt; weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey. The Filipinos were also mining gold in such places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold jewelry and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had their own system of writing,(18) and weights and measures. Some communities had become renowned for their plank-built boats. They had no calendar but counted the years by moons and from one harvest to another. In the interior and mountain settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters. They gathered forest products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. But they also made ______________________ (17) â€Å"Relation of the Voyage to Luzon,† (1570), op. cit. , pp. 163, 176-177. (18) Scott, Prehispanic Source Materials. pp. 52-62. _ â€Å"iron lance-points, daggers and certain small tools used in transplanting. â€Å"(19) On the whole, the pre-colonial Filipinos were still highly superstitious. The Spaniards found no temples or places of worship. Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time. (20) This would have led to a more systematic accumulation and dissemination of knowledge, a condition that is necessary for the development of science and technology. Because of the abundance of natural resources, a benign environment and generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little pressure for invention and innovation among the early Filipinos. As governor Francisco de Sande observed in 1575, the Filipinos do not understand any kind of work, unless it be to do something actually necessary — such as to build their houses, which are made of stakes after their fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of sailors; and to cultivate the land†¦ (21) Developments in Science and Technology During the Spanish Regime The beginnings of modern science and technology in the Philippines can be traced to the Spanish regime. The Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific research and these had important consequences for the rise of the country’s professions. But the direction and pace of development of science and technology were greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and by economic and trade adopted by the colonial government. _________________ (19) â€Å"Relation of Conquest of the Island of Luzon,† (1572) and â€Å"Relation of the Filipino Islands, by Francisco de Sande. (1575), in The Colonization and Conquest of the Philippines by Spain. op. cit. , pp. 190-210; 292-33; â€Å"Relation of the Philippine Islands by Miguel de Loarca,† (1575) and â€Å"Customs of the Tagalogs by Juan de Plascencia,† in Readings in Philippine Prehistory, pp. 197-220; 221-234. (20) The Code of Kalantiao and Maragtas Code which have been taught by historians as precious prehispanic documents were recently shown to have been fabricated much later. See Scott, Prehispanic Source Materials, Chaps. 4-5. (21) â€Å"Relation of the Filipino Islands, by Francisco de Sande,† (1575), op. it. , p. 313. The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes must, therefore, be analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the Philippines. Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago was greatly facilitated by the adoption of an essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin America. Known as reduccion, it required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay communities into fewer, larger and more compact settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells. This was a necessary response to the initial shortage of Spanish missionaries in the Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious conversion and military force. The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of local government. The precolonial ruling class, the datus and their hereditary successors, were adopted by the Spanish colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level of local government; i. e. as cabezas de barangay. The colonial authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized political control over the archipelago — for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of compulsory labor services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory sale of local products to the government. The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields, the streams and the forests which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by the colonial government. Thus the first century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic dislocation and a decline kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places. In the region surrounding the walled city of Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in the shipyards and forests. (22) Over the centuries, this population movement would greatly contribute to the congestion of Manila and its suburbs. The religious orders likewise played a major role in the establishment of the colonial educational system in the Philippines. They also influenced the development of technology and promotion of scientific research. hence, these roles must next be examined. —————— (22) On the consequences of reduccion, tributes and forced labor services, see John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines, Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700 (Madison: The Univesity of Wisconsin, 1959), chaps. IV, VII-IX; Nicholas P. Cushner, S. J. , Spain in the Philippines; from Conquest to Revolution (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, Institute of Philippine Culture, 1971), chaps. 4-5; de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 35-37. Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but these were not effectively carried out. (23) Primary instruction during the Spanish regime was generally taken care of by the missionaries and parish priests in the villages and towns. Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks and other instructional materials, primary instruction was mainly religious education. Higher education was provided by schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in Manila. For example, the Jesuits founded in Cebu City the Colegio de San Ildefonso (1595) and in Manila, the Colegio de San Ignacio (1595), the Colegio de San Jose (1601) and the Ateneo de Manila (1859). The Dominicans had the Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1640) in Manila. 24) Access to these schools was, however, limited to the elite of the colonial society — the European-born and local Spaniards, the mestizos and a few native Filipinos. Courses leading to the B. A. degree, Bachiller en Artes, were given which by the nineteenth century included science subjects such as physics, chemistry, natural history and mathematics. (25) On the whole, however, higher education was pursued for the priesthood or for clerical position s in the colonial administration. It was only during the latter part of the nineteenth century that technical/vocational schools were established by the Spaniards. (26) ——————– (23) Henry Frederick Fox, â€Å"Primary Education in the Philippines, 1565-1862,† Philippine Studies, Vol. 13 (1965), pp. 207-231, Encarnacion Alzona, A History of Education in the Philippines, 1565-1930 (1st ed. ; Manila: University of the Philippines Press, 1932), pp. 20-23, 46-52; Eliodoro G. Robles, The Philippines in the Nineteenth Century (Quezon City: Malaya Books Inc. 1969), pp. 219-229; J. Mallat, â€Å"Educational Institutions and Conditions,† (1846), in Emma H. Blair and James Alexander Robertson, The Philippine Islands 1493-1898 (Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co. , 1906), Vol. XLV, pp. 263-278. (24) The Colegio de San Ildefonso grew to become the present University of San Carlos in Cebu City. It was taken over by the Society of the Divine Word in 1933 and continu es to be administered by this Order. The Colegio de San Ignacio prospered and was elevated to the rank of a royal and pontifical university in 1621. It was closed when the Jesuits were expelled from the Philippines on 17 May 1768 by a royal decree of Charles III. The Colegio de San Jose was seized by the Crown upon the expulsion of the jesuits and later became the medical and pharmacy departments of the University of Santo Tomas. The Ateneo de manila is now a University run by the Jesuits. Alzona, op. cit. , pp. 24-29; Blair and Robertson, op. cit. , Vol. XLV, pp. 101-140. (25) The B. A. then was more equivalent to the present high school diploma. 26) The first school of arts and trades was founded in the province of Pampanga and a school of agriculture was opened in Manila in 1889. See Alzon, op. cit. , pp. 43-46; 156-164. Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest institution of learning. (27) Run by the Dominicans, it was established as a college in 1611 by Fray Miguel de Benavides. it initially granted degrees in theology, philosophy and humanities. (28) During th e eighteenth century, the faculty of jurisprudence and canonical law was established. In 1871, the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened. From 1871 to 1886, the University of Snato Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina to 62 graduates. (29) For the doctorate degree in medicine, at least an additonal year of study was required at the Universidad Central de Madrid in Spain. The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end of this period of the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted. The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was equivalent to a master’s degree, was granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one lof which could be taken simultaneously with the academic courses after the second year course of study. In 1876, the university granted the bachelor’s degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy. Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to as the â€Å"Father of Philippine Pharmacy† becuase of his extensive work on the medicinal plants of the Philippines and their uses. 30) The total number of graduates in pharmacy during the Spanish period was 164. (31). ——————– (27) There was a Royal University of San Felipe established in Manila by a royal decree of 1707. It remained open until 1726 when its work was taken over by the Jesuit University of San Ignacio which was closed in 1768. See ibid. , p. 31. (28) The following brief history of the University of Sto. Tomas is based on an account written by Fray E. Arias, reproduced in United States Bureau of the Census, Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903, Vol. III (Washington, D. C. : Government Printing Office, 1905), pp. 621-631; Blair and Robertson, op. cit. , Vol. XLV, pp. 141-169. (29) Arias, op. cit. , p. 631. (30) His works included Medicinal Plants of the Philippine Islands, published in 1903 and Medicinal Uses of Philippine Plants, published in 1921. See Miguel Ma. Valera, S. J. et al. , Scientists in the Philippines (Bicutan, Taguig, Rizal: National Science Development Board, 1974), pp. 95-114. (31) Milagros G. Nino, â€Å"Pharmaceutical Education in the Philippines,† UNITAS, Vol. 3 (JUNE 1970), p. 73. There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to go to Europe. There was a Nautical School created on 1 January 1820 which offered a four-year course of study (for the profession of pilot of merchant marine) that included subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, hydrography, meteorology, navigation and pilotage. (32) A School of Commercial Accounting and a School of French and English Languages were established in 1839. (33) In 1887, the Manila School of Agriculture was created by royal decree but it was able to open only in July 1889. The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of skilled farmers and overseers and to promote agricultural development in the Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation. Agricultural stations were also established in Isabela, Ilocos, Albay, Cebu, Iloilo, Leyte and parts of Mindanao. The professors in the School were agricultural engineers. The School was financed by the government but it appears that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of completion of the course were awarded by the university of Santo Tomas or the Ateneo Municipal. It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did not show much inclination for industrial pursuits. (34) In 1863, the colonial authorities issued a royal decree designed to reform the existing educational system in the country. It provided for the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-training schools, and called for government supervision of these schools. The full implementation of this decree, however, was interrupted by the coming of the Americans in 1898. Higher education during the Spanish regime was generally viewed with suspicion and feared by the colonial authorities as encouraging conspiracy and rebellion among the native Filipinos. For this reason, only the more daring and persevering students were able to undertake advantaged studies. The attitude of the Spanish friars towards the study of the sciences and medicine was even more discouraging. As one Rector of he Univesity of Santo Tomas in the 1960s said: â€Å"Medicine and the natural sciences are ——————- (32) Blair and Robertson, op. cit. , Vol. XLV, pp. 241-243. (33) Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903, op. cit. , pp. 613-615. (34) â€Å"School of Agriculture,† in Blair and Robertson, op. cit. , Vol. XLV, pp. 315-318. The required course of study included subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history , agriculture, topography, linear and topography drawing, etc. as well as practical work. materialistic and impious studies. (35) It was not surprising, therefore, that few Filipinos ventured to study these disciplines. Those who did were poorly trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Science courses at the University of Santo Tomas were taught by the lecture/recitation method. Laboratory equipment was limited and only displayed for visitors to see. There was little or no training in scientific research. (36) Sir John Bowring, the British Governor of Hongkong who made an official visit to the Philippines in the 1850s wrote: Public instruction is in an unsatisfactory state in the Philippines–the provisions are little changed from those of the monkish ages. In the University of Santo Tomas†¦ no attention is given to the natural sciences†¦ nor have any of the educational reforms which have penetrated most of the colleges of Europe and America found their way to the Philippines. (37) In spite of the small number of Filipino graduates from the UST in medicine and the sciences they still faced the problem of unemployment. This was because the colonial government preferred to appoint Spanish and other European-trained professionals to ——————— (35) Quoted in James A. Le Roy, Philippine Life in Town and Country (New York and London: G. P. Butnam’s Sons, 1905) p. 206. (36) This can be seen from a description of a physics class at the University of Santo Tomas by Jose Rizal in a chapter of his second novel, El Filibusterismo (The Subversive) written in Europe in 1891. At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to the authorities on the conditions at UST’s medical college. The report mentions, among others, its lack of library facilities, the use of outdated textbooks (some published in 1845), that no female cadaver had ever been dissected and the anatomy course was a â€Å"farce†, that most graduates â€Å"never had attended even one case of confinement or seen a case of laparotomy† and that bacteriology had been introduced only since the American occupation and â€Å"was still taught without microscopes! † See Le Roy, op. cit. , pp. 205-206. (37) Sir John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London: Smith Elder Co. 1858), p. 194. See also Robert MacMicking, Recollections of Manila and the Philippines during 1848, 1849, and 1850, ed. and annotated by Morton J. Netzorg (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1967, reprint of 1851 book published in London by Richard Bentley), pp. 31-32. available positions in the archipelago. (38) Many of these graduates later joined the revolutionary movement against Spain. With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it brought about, the liberal ideas nd scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for professional advanced studies. These included Jose Rizal who was able to pursue studies in Medicine and specialize in ophthalmology in Spain and Germany; Graciano Apacible who studied medicine in Madrid; Antonio Luna who obtained his Ph. D. in pharmacy in Madrid and later worked with renowned scientists in Ghent and Paris; (39) Jose Alejandrino who took up engineering in Belgium, and others. It was this group of students which set up the Propaganda Movement in Europe that eventually led to the Philippine revolution against Spain. The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the colony. This was similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in Europe (where they had come from) during the medieval ages. Inevitably, members of the religious orders also took the lead in technological innovation and scientific research. This involvement invariably arose from their need to provide for basic necessities as they went around the archipelago to perform their missionary work of propagating the Catholic faith and to finance the colleges, hospitals and orphanages that they had established. The Spaniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones, brick and tiles. In may places, the religious (such as Bishop Salazar in Manila) personally led in ——————– (38) Alzona, op. cit. , pp. 43-144, cited a memorial sent to the Madrid exposition in 1887 by officials of the University of Santo Tomas criticizing this government policy and urging its change â€Å"in order to prevent political disturbances which might be caused by the large number of dissatisfied professional men who could not find work. † See also Census of the Philippine Islands 1903, op. cit. , pp. 632-633. Apolinario Mabini wrote: â€Å"All the departments and provincial g overnments were staffed with peninsular Spaniards personnel unfamiliar with the country and relieved every time there was a cabinet change (in Madrid). Very few Filipinos secured employment as army officers, as officials in the civil administration, or as judges and prosecuting attorneys.. ,† See his The Philippine Revolution translated into English by Leon Ma. Guerrero (Manila: Department of Education. National Historical Commission, 1969), p. 27. (39) Vivencio R. Jose, The Rise and Fall of Antonio Luna. Special Issue of Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review. Vol. XXXVI, Nos. 1-4 (March-December 1971), pp. 43-48. these undertakings. 40) Because of the lack of skilled Filipinos in these occupations, the Spaniards had to import Chinese master builders, artisans and masons. The native Filipinos were drafted, through the institution of compulsory labor services, to work on these projects. In this manner, the construction of the walls of Manila, its churches, convents, hospitals, schools and public buildings were completed by the seventeenth century. (41) Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the religious orders ha d established several charity hospitals in the archipelago and in fact provided the bulk of this public service. These hospitals became the setting for rudimentary scientific work during the Spanish regime long before the establishment of the University of Santo Tomas (UST) college of medicine. Research in these institutions were confined to pharmacy and medicine and concentrated on the problems of infections diseases, their causes and possible remedies. (42) Several Spanish missionaries observed, catalogued and wrote about Philippine plants, particularly those with medicinal properties. The most notable of these was Father Fernando de Sta. Maria’s Manual de Medicinas Caseras published in 1763 which was so in demand that it had undergone several editions by 1885. (43) By the second half of the nineteenth century, studies of infectious diseases such as smallpox,(44) cholera, bubonic ——————– (40) de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 28, 31-33. (41) For a description of Manila during this period, see Giovanni Francesco Gemlli Careri, A Voyage to the Philippines (originally published in London, 1744-46; reprinted in Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1963), Chap. . (42) Euologio B. Rodriguez, â€Å"Brief observations on Science in the Philippines in the Pre-American Era,† National Research Council of the Philippines Islands (NRCP), Annual Report, 1934-35, bulletin No. 43 (Manila: February 1935), pp. 84-128; J. P. Bantug, â€Å"The Beginnings of Medicine in the Philippines,† NRCP, op. cit. , Bulletin No. 4, pp. 227-246; Vicente Ferriols, â€Å"Early History of Veteri nary Science in the Philippine Islands,† NRCP, ibid. , pp. 334-337; M. V. del Rosario, â€Å"Chemistry in the Pre-American Regime,† NRCP, op. cit. bulletin No. 5, pp. 359-362. (43) Eduardo Quisumbing, â€Å"Development of Science in the Philippines,† Journal of East Asiatic Studies, Vol. VI, No. 2 (April 1957), p. 132. (44) As early as 1803, an edict was passed to control smallpox by introducing vaccination. In 1806, a Board of Vaccination was set up to take charge of the propagation and preservation of the virus against smallpox. See Hilario Lara, â€Å"Development of Hygiene and Preventive Medicine (Public Health) in the Philippines,† NRCP, op. cit. , Bulletin No. 4, pp. 265-266. lague, dysentery, leprosy and malaria were intensified with the participation of graduates of medicine and pharmacy from UST. (45) At this time, native Filipinos began to participate in scientific research. In 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal de Ciudad de Manila was created by de cree. Its main functions were to conduct biochemical analyses for public health and to undertake specimen examinations for clinical and medico-legal cases. It had a publication called Cronica de Ciencias Medicas de Filipinas showing scientific studies being done during that time. 46) There was very little development in Philippine agriculture and industry during the first two centuries of Spanish rule. This was largely due to the dependence of the Spanish colonizers on the profits from the Galleon or Manila-Acapulco trade, which lasted from 1565 to 1813. It was actually based on the trade with China which antedated Spanish rule. (47) The galleons brought to Latin America Chinese goods — silk and other cloths, porcelain and the like — and brought back to Manila Mexican silver. When the Spanish and Portuguese thrones were united from 1581 to 1640, goods brought to Manila by ships from Japan and Portuguese ships from Siam, India, Malacca, Borneo and Cambodia were also carried by the galleons to Mexico. (48) During the this time, Manila prospered as the entrepot of the Orient. The Filipinos hardly benefited from the Galleon trade. Direct participation in the trade was limited to Spanish inhabitants of Manila who were given shares of lading space in the galleons. Many of them simply speculated on these trading rights and lived off on their profits. It was the Chinese who profited most from the trade. They acted as the trade’s packers, middlemen, retailers and also provided services and other skills ——————— (45) Specimens were usually submitted to pharmacists for examination. Thus drugstores, notably the Botica Boie and Botica de Santa Cruz in Manila, served as research laboratories as well as manufacturers of drugs and household remedies. See Patrocinio Valenzuela, â€Å"Pharmaceutical Research in the Philippines,† in NRCP, op. cit. , Bulletin No. 5, pp. 404-406. (46) Anacleto del Rosario, one of the first graduates of pharmacy at UST, was appointed as the first director of the Laboratorio. He pioneered in bacteriological research, particularly in the search for causes of cholera, tuberculosis and leprosy and investigated the origin of beriberi which was one of the leading causes of death during that time. See Varela, et al. , op. cit. , pp. 173-189. 47) Fedor Jagor, Travels in the Philippines (Reprint of 1875 English ed. , (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1965), chap. 2; William, Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1959); Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, chap. 6. (48) Morga, op. cit. , pp. 287; 304-309. which the Spanish community in Intramuros needed. (49) Spanish preoccupation with the Manila Galleon eventually led to the neglect of agriculture and mining and the decline of native han dicrafts and industries in the Philippines. The deleterious effects of the trade on the archipelago’s domestic economy had been pointed out by some Spanish officials as early as 1592. (50) But this seems to have been largely ignored by colonial policy-makers. Only the local shipbuilding industry continued to prosper because of necessity — to build the galleons and other ships required for internal commerce and the defense of the archipelago. This had become quite well developed according to a French visitor in the nineteenth century. He observed: In many provinces shipbuilding is entirely in the hands of the natives. The excellence of their work is proof that they are perfectly capable of undertaking the study of abstruse sciences and that mathematical equations are by no means beyond their comprehension†¦. (51) Agricultural development was left to the resident Chinese and the Spanish friars. The latter saw in the cultivation of their large estates around Manila a steady source of financial support for their churches, colleges, hospitals and orphanages in Intramuros. The friar estates profited from the expanding domestic food market as a result of the population growth of Manila and its suburbs. (52) But the friars contribution in the development of existing agricultural technology was more of quantitative than qualitative in nature. (53) The profitability of their estates was largely derived from the intensive exploitation of native technology and their free compulsory personal services. ——————– (49) Ibid. , pp. 314-316; de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 39-41. (50) de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 9-40; Morga, op. cit. , p. 310. (51) Jean Baptiste Mallat de Bassilan, Les Philippines (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846), in de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 154-155. Mcmicking, op. cit. , pp. 264-266, has similar positive observations on shipbuilding during that time. (52) See Nicholas P. Cushner, The Landed Estates in the Colonial Philippines (Monograph Series No. 20; New Haven Conn: Yale University Southeast Asia Studi es, 1976). (53) Paul P. de la Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippine Islands (New York: Harper Bros. Publishers, 1854), pp. 306-307, has sketches showing the simple agricultural tools and implements still used during the mid-nineteenth century. Successive shipwrecks of and piratical attacks on the galleons to Mexico led to declining profits from the trade and triggered an economic depression in Manila during the latter part of the seventeenth century. (54) This situation was aggravated by increasing restrictions on the goods carried by the Manila Galleon as a consequence of opposition coming from Andalusion merchants and mercantilists in Spain. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Bourbon dynasty ascended to the Spanish throne and brought with it political and economic ideas of the French Enlightenment. This paved the way for more government attention to the economic development of the Philippines. Enterprising Spaniards began to exploit the mineral wealth of the islands, develop its agriculture, and establish industries. These efforts were further encouraged by the need to promote economic recovery after the British Occupation of Manila in 1762-1764. (55) Research in agriculture and industry was encouraged by the founding of the Real Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas (Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Philippines) by Governador Jose Basco y Vargas under authority of a royal decree of 1780. Composed of private individuals and government officials, the Society functioned somewhat like the European learned societies during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and a modern National Research Council, (56) It undertook the promotion of the cultivation of indigo, cotton, cinnamon, and pepper and the development of the silk industry. During the nineteenth century, it was endowed with funds which it used to provide prizes for successful experiments and inventions for the improvement of agriculture and industry: to finance the publication of scientific and technical literature, trips of scientists from Spain to the Philippines, professorships; and to ——————– (54) de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 106-107. (55) For accounts of those attmepts to promote mining and industrial development, see ibid. , pp. 107-114; Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, pp. 186-194. 56) The Society’s early organization included sections of natural history, agriculture, and rural economy, factories and manufactures, industries and popular education. See Benito Legarda, Jr. , â€Å"Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth Century Philippines† (Ph. D. dissertation submitted to the Department of Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. , 1955), pp. 117- 119, 321-326; Patrocinio Valenzuela, â€Å"A Historical Review of Movements to Establish a Research Council of the Philippines, in NRCP, op. cit. , Bulletin No. , pp. 77-79; Blair and Robertson, op. cit, Vol. LII, pp. 289-324; Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, pp. 194-195. provide scholarships to Filipinos. (57) In 1789, Manila was opened to Asian shipping. This inaugurated an era of increasing Philippine exports of rice, hemp, sugar, tobacco, indigo and others and rising imports of manufactured goods. (58) In 1814, Manila was officially opened to world trade and commerce; subsequently other Philippine ports were opened. Foreign capital was allowed to operate on an equal footing with Spanish merchants in 1829. By this means agricultural production particularly of sugar and hemp, was accelerated and modernized. Local industries flourished in Manila and its suburbs — weaving, embroidery, hatmaking, carriage manufacture, rope-making, cigar and cigarettes-making. (59) Much of the finished products of these industries were exported. Yet although Philippine exports kept rising during the nineteenth century, imports of manufactured goods also rose and foreign, particularly English capital dominated external trade and commerce. 60) This partly because of short-sighted Spanish colonial trade policies and the relative inexperience and lack of capital of Spanish colonial trade policies and the relative inexperience and lack of capital of Spanish and Filipino merchants. The prosperity arising from expanded world trade and commerce in the nineteenth century led to Manila’s rapid development as a cosmopolitan center. Modern amenities — a waterworks system, steam tramways, electric l ights, newspapers, a banking system — were introduced into the city by the latter half of the nineteenth century. 61) Undoubtedly, commercial needs led to the Spanish governments establishment of a Nautical School, vocational schools and a School of Agriculture during the nineteenth century. Various offices and commissions were also created by the Spanish ___________________ (57) Blair and Robertson, op. cit. , Vol. LI, pp. 38-39. (58) de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 138-142; Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, pp. 195-197. (59) de la Costa, op. cit. , pp. 143-160; Cushner, Spain in the Philippines, op. cit. , pp. 197-209; Mcmicking, op. cit. , chaps. XXVI-XXVII; Bowring, op. cit. chap. I. (60) Carlos Recur, Filipinas; Estudios Administrativos y Commerciales (Madrid: Imprenta de Ramon Moreno y Ricardo Rojas, 1879), pp. 93-122. Recur observed (p. 110) that from the commercial point of view, the Philippines was an Anglo-Chinese colony flying the Spanish flag (â€Å"†¦ bajo el punto de vista comercial Filipinas es una colonia anglo-china con bandera espanola†¦ â€Å"). (61) John Foreman, The Philippine Islands (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, Ld. , 1890), chap. ; Mcmicking, op. cit. , chap. XXV. government by the Spanish government to undertake studies and regulations of mines, research on Philippine flora, agronomic research and teaching, geological research and chemical analysis of mienral waters throughout the country. (62) However, little is known about the accomplishments of these scientific bodies. Meteorological studies were promoted by Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory in 1865. The Obs ervatory collected and made available typhoon and climatological observations. These observations grew in number and importance so that by 1879, it became possible for Fr. Federico Faura to issue the first public typhoon warning. The service was so highly appreciated by the business and scientific communities that in April 1884, a royal decree made the Observatory an official institution run by the Jesuits, and also established a network of meteorological stations under it. (63) In 1901, the Observatory was made a central station of the Philippine Weather Bureau which was set up by the American colonial authorities. It remained under the Jesuit scientists and provided not only meteorological but also seismological and astronomical studies. The benefits of economic development during the nineteenth century were unevenly distributed in the archipelago. While Manila prospered and rapidly modernized, much of the countryside remained underdeveloped and poor. The expansion of agricultural production for export exacerbated existing socio-economic inequality, that had been cumulative consequence of the introduction of land as private property at the beginning of Spanish rule. There was increasing concentration of wealth among the large landowners — the Spaniards, especially the religious orders, the Spanish and Chinese mestizos, the native Principalia — and poverty and landlessness among the masses. This inequality, coupled with abuses and injustices committed by the Spanish friars and officials gave rise to Philippine nationalism and eventually the Revolution of 1896. ——————– 62) There were the Inspeccion General de Minas created by Royal Decree in 1837; Commission de Flora de Filipinas, 1876; Comision Agronomica de Filipinas, 1881; Comision Especial de Estudios Geologicos y Geograficos de Filipinas, 1885; and Comision de Estudios de las Aguas Minero Medicinales, 1884. See Leoncio Lopez Rizal, â€Å"Scientific and Technical Organizations in the Philippine Islands,† in NRCP. op. cit. , Bulletin No. 3, pp. 155-159. (63) The meteorological studies done at the Observatory, notably by Jose Algue Sanllei, became world renowned. Some were subjects of discussion at International Meteorological Congresses and were published in the Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society in London. See John N. Schumacher, â€Å"One Hundred Years of Jesuit Scientists: The manila Observatory 1865-1965,† Philippine Studies, Vol. 13 (1965), pp. 258-286; Valera, op. cit. , pp. 1-22. At the end of the Spanish regime, the Philippines had evolved into a primary agricultural exporting economy. Progress in agriculture had been made possible by some government support for research and education in this field. But it was largely the entry of foreign capital and technology which brought about the modernization of some sectors, notably sugar and hemp production. The lack of interest in and support for research and development of native industries like weaving, for example, eventually led to their failure to survive the competition with foreign imports. Because of necessity and the social prestige attached to university education, medicine and pharmacy remained the most developed science-based professions during the Spanish regime. Science and Technology During the First Republic There was very little development in science and technology during the short-lived Philippine Republic (1898-1900). The government took steps to establish a secular educational system by a decree of 19 October 1898, it created the Universidad Literaria de Filipinas as a secular, state-supported institution of higher learning. It offered courses in law, medicine, surgery, pharmacy and notary public. During its short life, the University was able to hold graduation exercises in Tarlac on 29 September 1899 when degrees in medicine and law were awarded. (64) Developments in Science and Technology During the American Regime Science and technology in the Philippines advanced rapidly during the American regime. This was made possible by the simultaneous government encouragement and support for an extensive public education system; the granting of scholarships for higher education in science and engineering; the organization of science research agencies and establishment of science-based public services. The Americans introduced a system of secularized public school education as soon as civil government was set up in the islands. On 21 January 1901, the Philippine Commision, which acted as the executive and legislative body for the Philippines until 1907, promulgated Act No. 74 creating a Department of Public Instruction in the Philippines. It provided for the establishment of schools that would give free primary education, with English as the medium of instruction. This was followed by the setting up of a Philippine Normal School to train Filipino teachers. Secondary schools were opened after a further enactment of the Philippine in ————– (64) Most of its faculty and students had actually come from the University of Santo Tomas. See Alzona, op. cit. , pp. 177-180; Teodoro A. Agoncillo, Malolos; The Crisis of the Republic (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1960), pp. 250-251. Commission in 1902. The Philippine Medical School was established in 1905 and was followed by other professional and technical schools. These were later absorbed into the University of the Philippines. The colonial authorities initially adopted a coordinated policy for the promotion of higher education in the sciences and government research institutions and agencies performing technical functions. The University of the Philippines was created on 18 June 1908 by Act of the Philippine Legislature. Among the first colleges to be opened were the College of Agriculture in Los Banos, Laguna in 1909, the Colleges of Liberal Arts, Engineering and Veterinary Medicine in 1910 and the College of Law in 1911. By 1911, the University had an enrollment of 1,400 students, (65) Four Years later, its enrollment had almost doubled (to 2,398) and the University included two new units, a School of Pharmacy and a Graduate School of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. 66) In 1916, the School of Forestry and Conservatory of Music were established; and in 1918, the College of Education was opened. Except in the College of Medicine, where there were already a number of Filipino physicians who were qualified to become its faculty members when it was opened in 1907, most of the early instructors and professor in the sciences and engineering at the University of the Philippines were Americans and other foreigners. Qualified Filipinos were sent abroad for advanced training and by this means foreign faculty were gradually replaced by Filipinos. For example, in 1920, Filipino Ph. D. graduates of U. S. universities took over the Department of Agriculture Chemistry in the College of Agriculture. By December 1926, the university’s enrollment in all colleges had reached 6,464 and out of a total teaching staff of 463, only 44 were Americans and other foreigners. (67) ——————— (65) Distributed among its various colleges and follows: College of Liberal Arts — 215, College of Medicine and Surgery – 56, College of Agriculture — 186, College of Veterinary Science — 14, College of Engineering — 11, College of Law — 154 and School of Fine Arts — 801. See Census Office of the Philippine Islands, Census of the Philippine Islands, 1918) Vol. IV, Part II: Schools Universities, Commerce and Transportation, Banks and Insurance (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1921), p. 602. (66) See ibid, p. 608. (67) Findings of the Monroe Survey of Education in the Philippines cited in W. Cameron Forbes, The Philippine Islands Vol. I (Boston and New York: Hougton Mifflin Co. , 1929) p. 477. Before 1910, the American colonial government encouraged young men and women to get higher professional education as much as possible in American colleges. In 1903, the Philippine commission passed an Act to finance the sending of 135 boys and girls of high school age to the United States to be educated as teachers, engineers, physicians and lawyers. (68) One third of these were chosen by the governor-general on a nation-wide basis and the rest by the provincial authorities. In exchange for this privilege, the pensionados, as they came to be called, were to serve in the public service for five years after their return from their studies. Between 1903 and 1912, 209 men and women were educated under this program in American schools. 69) After the establishment of the University of the Philippines, scholarships for advanced studies of a scientific or technical nature in American Universities were given only in preparation for assignment to jobs in the public service. The Philippine Commission introduced science subjects and industrial and vocational education into the Philippine school system but they found that industrial and vocation cou rses were very unpopular with the Filipinos. When the Manila Trade School was opened in 1901, the school authorities found it difficult to get students to enroll in these courses. Because of their almost 400 years of colonial experience under the Spaniards, middle class Filipinos had developed a general disdain for manual work and a preference for the prestigious professions of the time, namely, the priesthood, law and medicine. Education in these professions came to be regarded as the means of making the best of the limited opportunities in the Spanish colonial bureaucracy and thus of rising from one’s social class. Hence, even at the newly-opened University of the Philippines, it was difficult to get students to —————– The University began in 1911 with a faculty of only 36 scholars with the rank of assistant professor or higher, of which only five (14 per cent) were Filipinos, mostly from the College of Medicine. The remaining members of the faculty were Americans or in one or two cases other foreign professionals. In 1925, of 150 faculty members with the rank of assistant professor or higher, 117 (78 per cent ) were Filipinos and 33 (22 per cent) were American or other foreign scholars. See Harry L. Case and Robert A. Bunnel, The University of the Philippines; External Assistance and Development (East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for International Studies in Education, Michigan State University, 1970), p. 10, Table 1. (68) Forbes, op. cit. , p. 457 (69) Charles Burke Elliott, The Philippines to the End of the Commission Government: A Study in Tropical Democracy (New York: Greenwood Press Publishers, 1968), p. 242. The author served as Secretary of Commerce and Police in the Philippines Commission from 1910-1912. o enroll in courses whic How to cite Science, Essay examples